By the early 19th century, the Qing dynasty was suffering from administrative inertia, inadequate tax revenues and natural disasters. Then came a series of military defeats at the hands of foreign nations, beginning with the First Opium War with Great Britain in 1841.

These setbacks forced the Qing court to make many concessions, including the opening of the so-called treaty ports. This led not only to an expansion in foreign trade but also to unprecedented levels of cultural exchange. Missionaries arrived in large numbers, bringing Western education, medicine and technology.

The National Library of Australia acknowledges Australia’s First Nations Peoples – the First Australians – as the Traditional Owners and Custodians of this land and gives respect to the Elders – past and present – and through them to all Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

Cultural Notification

Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are advised that this website contains a range of material which may be considered culturally sensitive including the records of people who have passed away.

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